Research point: Explore the works of some of the artists whose work exemplifies chiaroscuro effects such as Tintoretto, Caravaggio and Rubens. Look also at the candlelit studies of some northern European artists, most especially Rembrandt and Joseph Wright of Derby.
Definition of chiaroscuro
(from Italian: chiaro, “light,” and scuro, “dark”) technique employed in the visual arts to represent light and shadow as they define three-dimensional objects. (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2018)
Term describing the effects of light and shade in a work of art, particularly when they are strongly contrasting. Leonardo was the great pioneer of bold chiaroscuro, but the term is most usually associated with seventeenth-century artists, particularly the Caravaggio and Rembrandt. (Chilvers, 2009)
Definition of tenebrism
Tenebrism is a term derived from the Italian ‘tenebroso’ which means darkened and obscuring. It is used to describe a certain type of painting in which significant details such as faces and hands are illuminated by highlights which are contrasted with a predominantly dark setting. The early works of Ribera (prior to 1632) and the late paintings of Caravoaggi, and those of many of his followers, are often described as tenebrist. (The National Gallery, 2018)
Research
The effects of light and shadow can be very stark or very subtle. However, a strong contrast between dark and light is what characterises chiaroscuro as applied to art, which greatly affects the composition of a painting. Its application creates an illusion of volume and three-dimensional form.
During the Renaissance Chiaroscuro only applied to those drawings on coloured paper; using the paper’s base tone and working toward light, which was achieved by the application of white gouache. Today, it encompasses a wide range of artwork that depicts strong lighting contrasts between light and dark parts of the artwork.
he Entombment of Christ 1603–1604 Caravaggio (wikipedia.org)
Early Renaissance painter Masaccio (1401-28) and High Renaissance artists Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) and Raphael (1483-1520) are commonly considered to have pioneered the use of chiaroscuro to create the illusion of relief in the modelling of the human body. However, the term is most often applied or associated to works created during the Mannerism and Baroque periods, notably by Caravaggio and Rembrandt.
The work of Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571-1610) incorporates both three-dimensional form (chiaroscuro) and dramatic lighting (tenebrism), examples of which include: The Calling of St Matthew (1600), The Martyrdom of St Matthew (1600), Supper at Emmaus (1601), The Crucifixion of St Peter (1601), and The Entombment of Christ (1601-3) (see figure 1). This not only created a three-dimensional form but the lighting (and subject matter) also created a sense of drama.
Perhaps one of Caravaggio’s most famous paintings is The Supper at Emmaus (1601) (see figure 2). The picture was commissioned by the Roman nobleman Ciriaco Mattei in 1601. Christ is shown at the moment of blessing the bread and revealing his true identity to the two disciples. Caravaggio’s pioneering treatment of the subject makes this one of his most influential works. The depiction of Christ is unusual in that he is beardless and great emphasis is given to the still life on the table. The intensity of the emotions of Christ’s disciples is conveyed by their gestures and expression. The viewer too is made to feel a participant in the event. Theatrical props bring the viewer into the space; the extended arm and open hand of the disciple on the right and a sense that the chair of the sitting disciple is about to be pushed out of the frame and into the space of the viewer. The basket of fruit balancing on the edge of the table tempting us to push it back. But Caravaggio’s use of light is not only the light of recognition, noting that the inn keeper, who remains oblivious to what is happening remains cast in a dark shadow. This single light source presents a dark background to emphasise the strong contrasts and luminosity, three-dimensional forms, depth and drama.
Fig. 2. The Supper at Emmaus, 1601 Caravaggio (National Gallery, 2018)
Fig. 3. Susanna and the Elders 1607 Peter Paul Rubens (Hermitage Museum, St Petersbury, 2018)
Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640) also employed such techniques to great effect. Rubens moved to Rome in 1600 and was hugely influenced by the work of artists like Tintoretto and Caravaggio. He absorbed their innovations to became the most successful Flemish painters of his time adopting the grander styles and techniques of the Italian artists, often depicting religious scenes, taking the drama and grand scale of the Italian artists and applying chiaroscuro with great effect to create a sense of movement, energy and reality. Susanna and the Elders, 1607 (see figure 3) is highly dramatic and emotive. Rubens made several paintings about the chaste Susanna and her assailants. This is the oldest. The old men see her pray and fall for her charms. However, she rejects them, whereupon the men falsely accuse her of adultery. Only the intervention of Daniel prevents Susanna from being stoned.
Joseph Wright (1734 – 1797), styled Joseph Wright of Derby, was an English landscape and portrait painter. He has been acclaimed as “the first professional painter to express the spirit of the Industrial Revolution”. (Tate, 2018)
Wright is notable for his use of chiaroscuro effect to emphasise the contrast of light and dark. His visits to Rome may have been his source of inspiration to compare the differing effects of natural and artificial light-sources that had so long fascinated him. This may also reflect his style, which was similar to that of Caravaggio, albeit using more detailed, technical compositions and painting them from a distance. “The extraordinary light effects and dramatic composition endow the scene with an almost religious grandeur, while the subtle allusion to the noble theme of the ‘Ages of Man’ adds a ‘history’ element to the subject that is worthy of a ‘grand style’ masterpiece”. (Tate, 2018)
Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn (1606-1669) created nearly one hundred self portraits in his lifetime. A number of these where candlelight studies, using Chiaroscuro to great effect.
Jusepe de Ribera (1590-1652) combines chiaroscuro and tenebrism with a direct, naturalistic style and dramatic use of light. He is perhaps best known for his dark and often gory paintings of torture and martyrdom. His early work shares a characteristic style to that of Caravaggio. However, where as chiaroscuro refers to a strong contrast between light and dark, Ribera’s use of tenebrism (literally, “shadow painting”) goes even further, to an intense, shadow, almost impenetrable darkness. This is used extensively in his painting Aristotle (1637) (see figure 4.) in order to create a powerful evocation of a philosopher deep in thought. The skull cap and cloak sleeve of the right arm merge into an impenetrable black background. The white cuff around the sleeve and fold of his red robe at the arm present a strong contour to allow the viewer to follow an imaginary line.The light source highlights the philosophers face, his tattered robes and his work-bench. There is no indication of his surroundings.
Fig. 4. Aristotle (1637) Jusepe de Ribera, (Indianapolis Museum of Art Online Collection, 2018)
References
Bisanz-Prakken, M. (2005). Rembrandt and his time. Milwaukee: Milwaukee Art Museum [Etc.], pp.13-15.
Chilvers, I. (2009). The Oxford dictionary of art and artists. 5th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Encyclopedia Britannica. (2018). Chiaroscuro | art. [online] Available at: https://www.britannica.com/art/chiaroscuro [Accessed 24 Jul. 2018].
The National Gallery, L. (2018). Tenebrism | Glossary | National Gallery, London. [online] Nationalgallery.org.uk. Available at: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/glossary/tenebrism [Accessed 24 Jul. 2018].
Tate. (2018). Joseph Wright of Derby 1734-1797 | Tate. [online] Available at: https://www.tate.org.uk/art/artists/joseph-wright-of-derby-615 [Accessed 1 Aug. 2018].
The National Gallery, L. (2018). Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio | The Supper at Emmaus | NG172 | National Gallery, London. [online] Nationalgallery.org.uk. Available at: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/paintings/michelangelo-merisi-da-caravaggio-the-supper-at-emmaus [Accessed 1 Aug. 2018].
OCA BA(Hons) Painting Degree - Level 1 