Research point: Chevreul’s colour theories
“Find out more about the colour theories of Chevreul and make notes on how particular artists have used Chevreul’s theories to expand the possibilities of painting.”
Michel Eugene Chevreul (1786 – 1889)
Fig. 1. First chromatic circle containing pure hues, from Cercles Chromatiques de M. E. Chevreul (Paris: Didot, 1861) (Roque, 2018)
- Michel-Eugène Chevreul, born in Angers, western France in 1786, had a long and distinguished career as a research chemist (Roque, 2018)
- 1824: Appointed Director of the Gobelins Manufactory in Paris – dying of tapestry works
- His research into how we see, or perceive to see colour, lead to his first paper on the subject entitled “Memoir on the influence that two colours can have on each other when seen simultaneously“. It took a further eleven years of research before producing his first and most influential book on the subject published in 1839 – “De la loi du contraste simultané des couleurs” (literally translated as “On the law of the simultaneous contrast of colours“). This demonstrated how juxtaposed colours can enhance or diminish each other’s intensity and produce desired colour effects. These are defined as; simultaneous, mixed and successive.
- This lead to a standard classification of colours “Chromatic Circle” comprising the 3 primary colours of red, yellow and blue and 69 hues of secondary colours resulting from mixing red with yellow, yellow with blue and blue with red.
- Chevreul’s findings influenced artist’s and art movements including, Impressionism, Neo-Impressionism and Orphic Cubism.
Theory of Contrast of Colours
Fig. 2. Simultaneous contrast
Chevreul’s theory of simultaneous contrast noted that the brain exaggerates differences in order to perceive them better. This applied to both contrasting and complementary colours. To demonstrate this Chevreul used a colour wheel showing colours and their complementary colours (see figure 1). As Director at Gobelin this, alongside other known rules of colour, helped Chevreul to explain why the weavers thought that they were being given different colours of black thread. Black threads placed against blue produced an orange tint, the complementary colour of blue.
Simultaneous contrast
The concept of simultaneous contrast happens when the surroundings of an object affects the object itself, both its colour and shape. For example, red appears more brilliant against a black background and somewhat dull against the white background (see figure 2). In fact, both are the same.
Where the eye sees two juxtaposed colours, they will appear as different as possible, both in colour intensity and tone, particularity on the borders where the colours are juxtaposed.
When observed adjacent to one another, colours (particularly bold colours) and tones influence each other, creating an optical illusion that appears to lighten or darken the hue or tone.
Mixed contrast
This is sometimes called colour fatigue. It works on the principle that if you look at a colour long enough it will eventually loose its vibrancy and appears dull. But, the vibrancy of the initial colour is restored quickly by looking at a spot of its complementary colour. Painters, said Chevreul, should rest their eyes periodically so their work doesn’t become drab.
Successive contrast
This is comparable to the notion of an after image. Look at a colour for a long time then glance away we see its complement for a moment – in fact we see a flash of colour that corresponds to the whole object.
Influence on Artists
While Chevreul had his critics, artists were influenced by his theories, either directly or second-hand: the latter often leading to a misunderstandings of its true nature with some artists adopting a style of painting based on misinterpretation. Furthermore, it was mostly artisans and not painters, who appreciated Chevreul’s findings when solving practical problems. Despite contrasting opinions many painters deliberately applied their knowledge regarding the use complementary colours, albeit often juxtaposing complementary colours and ignoring the unwanted effects found in other colour pairs.
Eugene Delacroix (1798 – 1863) was among many painters interested in Chevreul’s findings. Inspired by Chevreul, he purchased a copious amount of his notes and attended his lectures. A triangular diagram in a sketchbook illustrated the relationships of complimentary colours which he used to bring harmony to his paintings. Delacroix came to understand the idea of “simultaneous contrast of colours“, which he used to experiment to obtain vibrant and luminous colours. Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople (1840) demonstrates Delacroix’s use of complementary colours (see figure 3).
Fig. 3. Entry of the Crusaders in Constantinople 1840), Eugène Delacroix @Louvre Museum, Paris, 2018
“Delacroix used his colour triangle to elaborate the composition which is Chevreul’s Law structured by three pairs of complementary colours, in particular in the flags: one is yellow on a violet ground; another is blue with orange motifs, and finally on the floor there are two juxtaposed flags, one green and the other red“. (Roques, 2011, pp. 15-16).
Unfortunately, as the colours have deteriorated over time, this effect is no longer visible, except for the two tangled flags on the floor.
The career of Camille Pissarro (1830 -1903) spanned both Impressionist and Neo-Impressionist movements. Chevreul’s theories are often associated with these styles of painting with a shared commonality: colour and luminosity of light in nature. Dissatisfied with is own style and technique [Impressionism] he was keen to expand his knowledge and experimented with pointillism (Neo-impressionism), thus adopting the theories of Seurat.
Having been introduced to the essential elements of Chevreul’s work when studying as a student, Pissarro applied complimentary colours to give life and light to his paintings, using colour in shadows to bring a cohesive and harmonious appearance. His works are vibrant, and reinforce his use of complementary colours; for example his use of blue and orange in Woman and Child at the Well (1882) (see figure 4). Here, and in many of his works during this period, he used complementary colours to contrast with each other and to create shading, which is clearly noticeable on the yellow hat (the underside takes on a clear violet/purple hue), the orange bricks, which have blue in the areas of shade.
Georges Seurat (1859 – 1891) also studied Delacroix’s use of colour, believing that harmony and emotion could be evoked with colour. At the forefront of Pointillism or “Divisionism” he argued that luminosity and brilliance of colour could be enhanced if viewed as an ‘optical mixture’ i.e. by placing small dots of complementary colours next to each other and allowing the brain to perceive two colours as one. Philosopher and an art historian, Georges Roque noted that art historian Robert L Herbert discounted the claim of optical mixing as it had some negative criticism in more recent times. Although he acknowledged that even if the eye doesn’t exactly mix the colours, Divisionism and Pointillism does offer a high degree of luminosity in paintings. Herbert continues to explain his theory that “…if the Neo-Impressionists paintings are indeed very luminous, it is because the dots are big enough still to be perceived at the normal viewing distance and hence the optical mixture doesn’t work. So it is precisely because the dots don’t achieve a complete optical mixture that they retain their luminosity!”This would suggest that Seurat misunderstood the application of this theory, confusing contrast and mixing, the balance of which depends on the size of the sample of colour. (Roque, 2011, p. 19)
Fig. 5. The Bedroom (1888). Vincent Van Gogh (Vangoghmuseum.nl, 2018)
Vincent Van Gogh (1853 – 1890) intensely studied colour theories and complementary colours. In letters to his brother Theo, he proposed different ways of using the harmony of complementary colours to create “…contrast by the difference of intensity and a harmony“. Van Gogh understood the concept, and perhaps admired, the techniques used by Seurat and Paul Signac to develop his own style of mark making. But Van Gogh not only used combinations of complementary colours for the purpose of harmony, but also to make them contribute to the meaning of the painting. The Bedroom (1888) (see figure 5.) is a good example of this chromatic strategy. He describes the yellow wood and violet walls, the scarlet blanket and green window and light lime green pillow. The orange dressing table and blue basin. His repetitive use of colours conveys a sense of rest and harmony which he described as:-
“……This time it’s simply my bedroom, but the colour has to do the job here, and through its being simplified by giving a grander style to things, to be suggestive here of rest or of sleep in general. In short, looking at the painting should rest the mind, or rather, the imagination….” (Vangoghletters.org, 2018)
Fig. 6. Paul Klee Colour Wheel (Paul-klee.org, 2018)
Paul Klee (1879 – 1940) is best perhaps known as an artist for his striking depictions of the human face, his abstract (and somewhat cubist artworks) and his great influence on German Expressionism. What is less known is that colour for Klee was something of an obsession.
Influenced by the colour theories of Isaac Newton and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (a German writer active in the nineteenth-century) klee’s theories can be seen in his artworks as he applied his reasoning to his artistic practice. Klee spoke of his ‘tiresomeness’ of having ‘too much white’ in a painting. As such, he developed a theory of colours (see figure 6.) that was intended to help artists to use colour as effectively as possible. The importance of using complementary colours to balance each other out, and the ‘difficulty’ of integrating the bold, fiery tones of yellow and violet together into an artwork. in contrast to Van Gogh, Klee argued that yellow and violet are the two most different colours in the whole colour spectrum. To help artists to find colours that complement each other, Klee developed a colour wheel which can be used as a cross referencing tool. These theories can be found in Klee’s work ‘Pedagogical Sketchbook’. (Paul-klee.org, 2018)
Robert Delaunay (1885-1941) was captivated by Divisionist thinking. Between 1905 and 1907 Delaunay became friendly with Henri Rousseau and Jean Metzinger and studied the colour theories of Michel-Eugène Chevreul (Guggenheim.org, 2018). It inspired him to think about the relationship colours have to each other when placed next to each other on the canvas. Using Chevreul’s colour theory to systematically structure his abstract paintings to convey form, depth, light and even emotion. His intention was to capture colour vibration and transport it to the eye of the viewer by applying a phenomenon which Chevreul called “mixed contrast”. (IdeelArt.com, 2018)
Fig. 7. Le Premier Disque (1912-13) Robert Delaunay
(My Favorite Arts, 2018)
References
Camillepissarro.org. (2018). Woman and Child at the Well, 1882 by Camille Pissarro. [online] Available at: http://www.camillepissarro.org/woman-and-child-at-the-well.jsp [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Goethe, J. and Eastlake, C. (2006). Theory of colours. London: Dover Publications, pp.181-191.
Guggenheim.org. (2018). [online] Available at: https://www.guggenheim.org/artwork/artist/robert-delaunay [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
IdeelArt.com. (2018). [online] Available at: https://www.ideelart.com/magazine/robert-delaunay [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Mayer, R. and Sheehan, S. (1991). The artist’s handbook of materials and techniques. London: Faber and faber, pp.164-165.
My Favorite Arts. (2018). “Le Premier Disque”, 1912-13 by Robert Delaunay. [online] Available at: https://theartstack.com/artist/robert-delaunay/le-premier-disque-1912-13 [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Nationalgallery.org.uk. (2018). Seurat’s painting practice: theory, development and technology. [online] Available at: https://www.nationalgallery.org.uk/upload/pdf/kirby_stonor_roy_burnstock_grout_white2003.pdf [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Paul-klee.org. (2018). Colours by Paul Klee. [online] Available at: http://www.paul-klee.org/colours/ [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Programmingdesignsystems.com. (2018). A short history of color theory – Programming Design Systems. [online] Available at: https://programmingdesignsystems.com/color/a-short-history-of-color-theory/ [Accessed 29 Sep. 2018].
Read, H. (1980). A concise history of modern painting. London: Thames and Hudson.
Roque, G. (2011). Chevreul’s colour theory and its consequences for artists. Published by the Colour Group (Great Britain) http://www.colour.org.uk 2011, p.19.
Roque, G. (2018). [online] Colour.org.uk. Available at: http://www.colour.org.uk/wp-website/wp-content/uploads/2017/10/Chevreuls-Law-F1-web-good.pdf [Accessed 29 Sep. 2018].
Roy, A. (2003). National Gallery Technical Bulletin, 24. London: National Gallery.
Short, C. (2010). The art theory of Wassily Kandinsky, 1909-1928. Oxford: Peter Lang, p.142.
Vangoghletters.org. (2018). 705 (710, 554): To Theo van Gogh. Arles, Tuesday, 16 October 1888. – Vincent van Gogh Letters. [online] Available at: http://vangoghletters.org/vg/letters/let705/letter.html [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
Vangoghmuseum.nl. (2018). The Bedroom – Van Gogh Museum. [online] Available at: https://www.vangoghmuseum.nl/en/collection/s0047V1962?v=1 [Accessed 29 Nov. 2018].
OCA BA(Hons) Painting Degree - Level 1 